Translation of poetry is one of the most difficult and challenging tasks for every translator. According to Robert Frost's definition, "Poetry is what gets lost in translation". This statement could be considered as a truthful one to a certain extent because there is no one-to-one equivalent when comparing two languages. Even if the translators possess a profound knowledge in the source language they would not be able to create a replica of the original text. What should be preserved when translating poetry are the emotions, the invisible message of the poet, the uniqueness of the style in order to be reached the same effect in the target language as it is in the source. When talking about the translation of poetry we could not but mention some of the numerous problems encountered during this process. The essential problem with translation is an obvious one. A word has more qualities than just its denotation. For one, a word has a sound, an attribute which has great importance in poetry (though we should not underestimate its significance in prose, as well). Also, a word consists of various connotations, meanings which only rarely cross over from language to language. Complicating matters is the nature of literature itself. Writers and poets put pressure on the language; they often choose words because of their rich variety of meanings, complicating rather than clarifying their subjects. Unfortunately, then, for the translator of literature, the currency of words is not as easy to exchange as the other kind of currency. Italian has a saying, "traduttore-traditore" (translator-betrayer). The phrase reveals at once the problem of all translators - words don't have literal equivalents in different languages. To say "translator-traitor" in English would be unduly dramatic!
But, as Christopher Caudwell notes in his "Illusion and Reality", while the qualities of great novels can survive translation, those of poetry cannot. Surprisingly enough, this is not due to the difficulty of translating metrical pattern, but to the nature of poetry itself. The usefulness of the debate on translating is that it compels us to look more critically at the task of the poet and the function of poetry. Poetry is neither just words, nor just metre. It is a music of words, and is a way of seeing and interpreting the world and our experience of it, and of conveying to the listener a heightened awareness of it through an intense concentration of metaphor and words in which the natural flow of speech sounds is moulded to some kind of formal pattern. Such patterns can never be the same after the act of translation. Pattern, obviously, is governed by the rules of syntax and prosody that language has inherited from the historical and social pressures that shaped it. Poets may accept or reject these rules, but this is also determined by historical and social tensions. Some who choose to modify the rules may, like Lear or Carroll, for example, or Edith Sitwell, do so by writing "sound poems" or nonsense verse, musical but meaningless. Emerging from the same social tensions, poetic "movements" have expressed widely divergent views on what should be the purpose and the structure of poetry. What, then, is a translator to do? Which of the many threads of which poetry is made must he capture in his translation? Luckily, we don't have to answer that question. He answers it for us. He responds to his own poetic instincts. He chooses which of the poems many threads he will seek to interpret. If he aims at literal translation, he will not necessarily expect a "poetic" result. He may aim to translate a poem's "music" or "mood". But the sounds of words and the norms of prosody make of every language a fortified compound, as hard to escape from as to access. E. V. Rieu recognizes the inherent difficulty of translation. Perfect translation may be impossible, so the best we can hope for, he writes in the following, is a translation of the spirit of the work: "I call it the principal of equivalent effect and regard it as signifying that that translation is the best which comes nearest to creating in its audience the same impression as was made by the original on its contemporaries" (55). Rieu criticizes the translators of the King James Version of the Bible for remaining stubbornly faithful to the original language. Here he presents a parable, the moral of which is undoubtedly weakened by awkward translation. St. Luke in (xvii reports Jesus as imagining a scene in which a master says to his slave, "Get something ready for my supper." The Greek is colloquial and the master is not represented as speaking politely. Yet the authorized translators put into his mouth the words: "Make ready wherewith I may sup." (55) In that example the superiority of Rieu's plain-spoken translation is obvious, but it begs the question of how much freedom does one give a translator. Rieu's ideal that a translated work must cause "the same impression" as the original seems to give scholars license to embellish. Werner Winter believes that, regardless of the degree of embellishment, translation cannot avoid altering the work. Try as we might, Winter writes, "Meaning and form cannot be dissociated from one another" (70). That is, just the basic look and sound of a group of words lined up together is tied up with their meaning, and the differences between languages make impossible their unaltered, undefiled translation. He compares the translator to a sculptor who attempts to replicate a marble statue without the benefit of marble. "Whatever his material," Winter writes, "if he is a good craftsman, his work may be good or even great; it may indeed surpass the original, but it will never be what he set out to produce, an exact replica of the original" (65). Words, like marble, have certain intrinsic qualities that are indivisible from the form they take. If perfect translation is impossible, as Winter regards it to be, how much imperfection do we allow before we give up the whole thing? There arise certain difficulties in poetic translation process; the losses are the result of the existing divergences in the grammatical structure or in the means of expression in the two languages, first of all in the greater number of syllables in the same words in Persian, which is a tangible obstacle for the translators of poetry. That is why in order to maintain the poetic metre of the lines in the original stanza above the translator had to transform them. By studying and analyzing Robert Frost's heritage and translating his poems into the target language in the light of his own understanding, the translator made an attempt to make an adequate contribution into literary translation development and transform the values of the source culture into the target culture through the subjective innovative perception of the translator, tried to achieve the "translation of full value", to find the core of translation and tried to create the version of translation in the target language so that it should make sense and bring aesthetic and emotional pleasure to the target reader with minimum losses in perception and created a more precise and detailed translation, enriching it with his own vision preserving details and subtle shades of the source poem with minimized losses in its form and content in comparison with other versions of translation. In her essay "The Politics of Translation," Gayatri Spivak writes about the responsibilities that we have as Western readers and writers to question our position and privileged identity over, in particular, third-world translated texts. "Translation is the most intimate act of reading," she writes. "I surrender to the text when I translate (398)." Surrendering to the text means careful attention and awareness of both the logic and the rhetoric of the original language--an attention that would be difficult to master without doing the hard work of actually immersing oneself in the culture and language of the text being translated. Ammiel Alcalay, in an interview with Benjamin Hollander, writes that learning another language is crucial in the agenda to "stretch the American context to engage with experiences that are not made to fit existing models"(184). To Alcalay it is crucial to resist mono-lingualism and to "give permission to other languages, literatures, and cultures to come into the space of the language you happen to be writing in (194)." Shafi'ee Kadkani (2001) believes that "good poetry, ranging from the most modern to the most traditional types, is one which would sediment totally or partially in the memory of serious readers of poetry..." (p.23).This 'sedimentary' aspect of poetry among Persian speakers can be traced in their appreciation of their great poets such as Ferdowsi, Rumi, Sa'di, and Hafiz. Among these great figures, Sa'di was the one who, according to Arberry (1945), "brought the high style down to the understanding of the masses, but without sacrificing either purity or elegance." (p. 22). Among the huge bulk of Sa'di's masterpieces a very short but universally known piece has been selected for this study, i.e. "Oneness of Mankind." This has been done for two reasons: First, Sa'di's style is a model of 'elegant simplicity,' i.e. while his poems are not devoid of the artificial aids of such figures of speech as puns, allusions, and metaphors, he nevertheless keeps a tight rein upon his exuberant fancy and avoids the pitfalls of becoming precious and obscure, of overloading his matter with too great a burden of learning (Arberry 1945). Thus, it seems that one who wants to translate Sa'di would not have to tread a 'thorny' road. Second, the availability of different English translations of the selected piece persuaded the researchers to examine it through a comparative analysis, with the purpose of coming up with a clear understanding of the rhetorical diversities involved in translating poetry. Most translation authorities believe in some sort of stylistic loss in translating poetry into prose, let alone for rendering a poem into its equivalent verse. This is partly true for Sa'di, where the intended meaning and the whole beauty of his style lies in the beautiful wording of his poems and the application of 'art prose' (Saj'). This will be better clarified by taking a look at the prose version of Rehatsek (1964) below: All men are members of the same body, Created from one essence. If fate brings suffering to one member, The others cannot stay at rest. You who remain indifferent To the burden of pain of others, Do not deserve to be called human. (p. 85) Although faithful to the meaning of the original poem, this rendering has not been able to create its aesthetic effect. Sa'di's art is to put the most manifest truths into the most memorable words. But Rehatsek's version has just considered the first part of this reality, i.e. putting the simplest truths into the simplest words. Moreover, he has not been able to show the sense of religiosity characterizing Sa'di's poetry. At the same time, the last two-three lines are so pedantic and laborious that one may feel the translator is not a native speaker of English. Theodore Savory regards translation as a worthwhile enterprise, despite the built-in flaws. As the following passage suggests, Savory does not regard these flaws as terribly serious ones: "... losses in translation occur only when the original words contain something more than their plain meaning. In Savory's view, prose offers little problem to the translator, since the complications making the translation of poetry difficult reside solely in the domain of poetry and are in fact what elevates poetry above prose (78). One wonders what Savory would make of the translation of an especially poetic bit of prose--the last paragraph in James Joyce's "The Dead," for instance--but his point is clear. Poetic devices, then, are "characteristics which cannot be translated" (78). What can be translated is the poet's vision; Savory writes, "The poet has seen or heard or otherwise experienced something that we might never have known but for his poetry; and these experiences can be expressed in another tongue by simple and faithful translation" (88). In other words, although alliteration, assonance, consonance, punned expressions, rhyme and meter may be lost in translation, the poet's unique vision will remain, if translated simply and faithfully, and that alone makes translation worthwhile. Your job as a translator is not only to pass the meaning of the poem into another language but to respect and honor its spirit. I don't mean you need a sA©ance with a thousand candles, begging the poem to breathe your page. I mean that there are some rules to respect when you translate a poem. 1. Stay Close to the Poem. Read the poem again and again until the words become second nature on your tongue. By doing this, you will be able to feel the rhythm of the poem. You will recognize the pace, the pauses, the beats, the swirls of energy. Write the poem in longhand and make ten copies. Stick these where you can see and read them. Try the bathroom, the kitchen cabinet, or the freezer door, leading to the Ben & Jerry's. These copies will familiarize you with the poem's grammatical structure: Where the adjectives are, where there is a break in tenses. Plus, if you put them on that package of Oreo's, it'll take you longer to gobble the bag down. You will have to read the poem first! 2. Know the poet. If you are lucky enough to pick a living poet to translate, write to him or her. Get to know the person; ask him or her questions about the poem. What was the poet thinking when writing the poem? What does the poet think the poem means? Is there any imagery or language that is repeated? Is there anything symbolic from his or her life? What does the poet think of poetry? The more you know about the poet and his or her life, the better able you are to understand the nuances of the poem. Be courteous and grateful. The poet is answering your questions to help you with your translation. If, however, you choose a poet who has passed on, your job is a little harder. Try and find out as much as you can about the poet's life. Most countries have national writer's associations. If they don't, check the web and university libraries and language departments. Maybe from there you can find other people who knew the poet or can help guide you. Build as many contacts as you can. Be familiar with the poet and you will get a sense for the poem. 3. Go for Grace. When you translate a poem, your job is to stay as close to the meaning as possible. That said, you also have artistic license to use (not abuse) the meaning to make a clear and graceful translation. Translating slag is an excellent example of when to use artistic license. Some slang has absolutely no meaning in another language. In fact, a direct translation would make the poem fail. In that case, turn the meaning of the slang into its equivalent. Remember, you want readers in your language to enjoy the poem, not marvel at how well you can directly translate words. 4. Be Wary. This tip is for those of you who think translating takes a few minutes' tops. There are some great computer programs that are designed for translation. There are also some excellent dictionaries and phrase books. But do not rely on them to give you the end-all-be-all translation. You must do the footwork. You can use these computer programs and dictionary translations as a guide. They may help get to the bones of the poem but your job is to put heart and live language on those bones. 5. Take a Deep Breath. When you finish a translation, sit tight for a few days, maybe even a week, before you go over it. Take some time to think about something else, in your own language. Then come back and see where the gaps and the goodies are. 6. Have a Self- Confidence in Translating of Poem You as a translator should have courage and dare to translate every text specially the poetry texts which have many complexities of meaning per itself. Do not worry about the misunderstanding and comprehension of the readers or poem translating well. More exercise over and over makes you perfect translator. We still must ask, however, what can be left of poetry after its passage, whether in literal or in free translation, across so forbidding a frontier? How can even the most talented of translators presume to take it across undamaged? Poetry has deeper roots in our consciousness that most of us are aware. From our earliest days we are nourished with nursery rhymes. Rhymes at school help us remember rules of grammar and arithmetic. Rhymes help drivers remember the rules of the road, and pilots their take-off checks. Poetry read, or sung, has helped man face heavy labour and adversity. And chanted patterns of words assisted - and still assist - the performance of physical labour.
The origins of poetry pre-date written literature. Speech rhythms fitted to metrical designs assisted memory in distant ages when learning existed but writing did not. Some of the earliest written languages were hieroglyphic, and what are hieroglyphs if not metaphors, the images from which poetry is constructed? Poetry is, indeed, deep in our roots. It is not uncommon to find illiterate people who may not normally be articulate, who can and often do, when stirred by emotion, lapse into rhythmic, poetic speech.
A "gooseflesh reaction" then tell you that you are listening to poetry. Is it justifiable to think that stirring such emotions - that we believe also stirred the poet - is a part of the translator's purpose? Certainly, the translator's first task is to dismantle the linguistic part of this organic structure. How can he then, or can he, claim to be faithful to the poet in doing so? How can he, or can he, reproduce in another tongue the music of a poet's words? How can he, or can he, awaken in another language the emotions that stirred the poet and his listeners in their own tongue - not just emotions but gooseflesh also, not the translator's but the poet's also? How freely may the translator translate before he ceases to be a translator? At what point can he, or does he become a plagiarizer, or a copyist? Let me close with an example of a free translation, and a question. Is it faithful to the poem's creator who wrote in long unrhymed polysyllabic lines? It is assumed that though the translation of literary texts in general and that of poetry in particular seems a far-fetched challenge and, in rare cases, only possible with partial semantic and stylistic loss, it is by no means totally impossible. The evidence of past masterly achievements indicates that a skilled translator with a poetic taste can achieve this end with the necessary literary features and devices of the source text kept intact. Translating a poem is a lot like writing a poem yourself. You have to know what you want to say. You have to feel what you want to say. You have to be focused. There are a thousand other jobs that are easier, better paid, and eyesight-saving, but translating has its own glories. Putting poems into another language is one of the best ways to share culture, honor poets, and remind us that we can transcend geography. Do your best. Adam's sons stem from the same holy trunk; With the first sacred clot they've become drunk.
When Father Time afflicts a fellow with pain, Others will restlessly start to complain.
You heedless of other humans' distress, Deserve never to don Adam's dress. (Sa'di) References Alcalay, Ammiel. From the warring factions, Venice, CA: Beyond Baroque, 2002. Arthur L. Clements. 1962. John Donne's poetry. New York: W.W. NORTHON & COMPANY. Arberry, A. J. (1945). Kings and Beggars: the first two chapters of Sadi's Gulistan, Luzac & co., London.
Aryanpoor, M. (1970). Classical Persian Literature. Tehran: College of Translation Press. Borges, Jorge Luis. "The Translators of The Thousand and One Nights," translated by Esther Allen. From The Translation Studies Reader, edited by Lawrence Venuti, (New York: Routledge, 2000). 34-47. Cocteau, Jean. "L'Ange Heurtebise," translated by Kristin Prevallet. Chicago Review, (Winter 2001/Spring 2002), 181-186. Eastwick, E. B. (1984). The Rose-Garden of Shaikh Muslihud-Din Sadi of Shiraz. London: The Octagon Press. Furooqi, M. A.(1987). The Collection of Sa'di's Works. Tehran: Tulooa' Press.
Ilaahii Qumsheii, H. (2000). A Study of Translated Islamic Texts. Tehran: SAMT.
Jackson, R (2003). From Translation to Imitation. Retrieved March 12.2003 from the Worldwide Web: http://www.utc.edu/~engldept/pm/ontransl.htm.
Khatiib Rahbar, Kh. (1983). Gulistan. Tehran: Safi Alishah Press.
Kopp, M (1998). Poetry in Translation. Retrieved March 12.2003 from the Worldwide Web: http://www.geocities.com/paris/bistro/2207/apoetrytr.htm.
Lefevere, A. (1975). Translating poetry: seven strategies and a blueprint. Assen: Van Gorcum.
Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall. Paayadeh, A. (1982). Nahjul Fasaaha. Tehran: Jaavidaan Press.
Rehatsek, E. (1964). The Gulistan or Rose Garden of Sa'di. London: George Allen & Unwin LTD.
Ross, J.(1890). Sadi's Gulistan. Shiraz: Marefat Bookseller & Publisher. Shafi'ii Kadkani, M. R. (2001). The Music of Poetry. Tehran: Aagaah Press.
Sharp, N. in Dehqani-Tafti, H.B.(2004). An awareness of Christian Thought in Persian Poetry http://www.farsinet.com/ChristInPersian/classical_poets1.html. Vahid Dastjerdi, H. (1999). An Anthology of Wise Sayings. Isfahan: Basaaer Press.

If your company is heavily website-based, then you're certainly previously conscious of the Internet's prospective for reaching an worldwide viewers and for reaching it speedily through on-collection marketing. To cater for your global consumers, you'll most likely have your website site translated into the main languages spoken in the markets you are targeting. For several folks, this portion is relatively straightforward: you submit your duplicate to the translator, who will offer you a quote primarily based on the quantity of textual content and any other distinctive requirements you might have, these kinds of as checking the translated textual content of website varieties as soon as they're on series. But have you regarded as how you're going to take care of the translation of your on-line promoting material?

If accomplished properly, translating on-series marketing material differs from regular translation in some important techniques. Firstly, a substantial component of the material to be translated will truly be the key phrases that you bid on or purchase somewhat than the advertisement duplicate by itself. Translating keywords properly is considerably distinct to translating paragraphs of text message for causes we'll see under. A great posting translator must also function in a different way to a colleague dealing with ordinary textual content when it will come to the posting textual content alone.

The latter stage may possibly seem the more apparent but is really worth increasing on. The promotion scheme that you are utilizing will generally have limitations imposed on them this sort of as the maximum lengths of titles and other lines of the advertisement. The text of your adverts was possibly chosen to sound catchy relatively than due to the fact a certain literal which means was essential. So to translate an on-series advert, it may well be much more effective to use an approximate translation that sounds catchy and adheres to the length limitations. As an illustration of the type of selections the translator can make, there is a phrase in Spanish that can be employed to translate "summer time holidays" ("veraneo") which is really smaller than the common phrase for "holidays" ("vacaciones"). If the translator is aware of that your organization or campaign is particularly dealing with summer holidays (and a excellent translator will always take the time to understand your enterprise), they can use the shorter term which might be essential when translating an posting title with a 25-character limit.

The difficulties involved in translating promoting search phrases might be much less obvious. But assume very first about the process you went via to pick your keywords. You in all probability starting by choosing some phrases that characterize your company. You may well then have expanded this list by contemplating synonyms, possibly using a instrument such as Google Developments to come across the most possible synonyms that a consumer would investigation for. You would also have regarded as which mixtures of these synonyms have been most probably in English. For instance, in British English, the phrases "hire", "rent" and "let" have equivalent meanings, but "hire" is typically linked with automobiles or industrial machines, "rent" with residential house and "let" with industrial house. Subconsciously, your choice of achievable search phrases was probably influenced by the grammar of English and the grammar of net lookups. For example, you would in all probability selected "van hire" fairly than "vans hire" or "van hires", neither of which are generally grammatical in English. If you had been working a holiday business, you may well select "minibreaks Paris" fairly than "minibreaks in Paris", simply because you know folks tend to omit brief operate terms like 'in' in web lookups.

When it will come to translating these keywords and phrases, you might naively believe that you can appear up translations of every person word and do a search and substitute on the record of search phrases. Sadly, this will generally not be efficient for many reasons. Exactly where there are synonyms these kinds of as "hire", "rent", "let" in English, the overseas language in all probability won't have specifically the similar amount of synonyms with a immediate mapping among them. (In The spanish language, for instance, the two verbs "alquilar" and "rentar" can the two implement to either cars or residence.) So in the international vocabulary, you may possibly require to think about combinations of terms that you didn't think about in English, and some combinations may well not be viable.

Some of the grammatical restrictions that affected your key phrase variety in English may possibly not utilize in the overseas vocabulary. For illustration, in English the phrase "vans hire" is usually ungrammatical. But in French, Italian and The spanish language (and indeed numerous other languages), the phrase would be frequent and grammatical with both singular or plural, foremost to far more key phrase combinations to consider bidding on. And in these and other Latin-based mostly languages, compounds are generally shaped by inserting the term for "of" in between the written content words (e.g. "de" in Spanish and French, "di" in Italian). But in internet queries, this term may optionally be omitted, so that in The spanish language, for instance, a Spaniard seeking for "automobile hire" might look for (amongst other items) for both "alquiler DE coches" or merely "alquiler coches".

Most subtly of all, the grammar of internet searches really differs from language to terminology. Some of my own analysis suggests, for example, that The spanish language speakers are much more probably to include the term "de" between written content phrases than French speakers, and that Spanish audio system are much more likely to pluralize phrases in their queries.

Lastly, recall that some on-series advertising techniques provide a key phrase software which will recommend alternate options for you to bid on giving a beginning listing. You should also communicate to your translator to see if they can help you in selecting between the record of recommendations and advising you on their meanings wherever essential. dich thuat

Within past years modern electronic communication has created extensive business opportunities for freelance translators. They are able to reach clients from all over the world and perform their jobs at their own convenience. It appears to be a dream profession, but yet so many translators report that it's challenging to keep their previous clients, and that the number of clients they served has diminished. One would like to know why this takes place.

First of all, one need to be aware that nowadays there is a great competition on the market, and clients are very selective. So how do I make sure that clients will return to me, not to my competitor? There are clients who constantly need translation services, and they actually prefer to use the same translator for many different projects. They will only cooperate with you again if they were satisfied with your previous services. It is also to your advantage to be familiar with complains the clients have made about translation services in the past. The most common ones are:

1. The project was not finished on time. 2. The translator demonstrated poor language skills: grammar, spelling, punctuation, omitted words, etc. 3. The translator misunderstood the formation of the translation project. He/she used different font, style. He/she did not translate the images. He/she did not include tables, etc. 4. The translator showed poor communication skills. He/she was not flexible enough. He/she has never notified when a problem occurred during the translation process. 5. The translator was hard to reach at his/her office. He/she did not provide adequate mailing address and all the documents kept returning to the sender. 6. The translator turned out to be not reliable. He/she assured he/she knew the dialect of the language but did not demonstrate this skill. He/she advertised himself/herself as a legal translator but never certified his/her work. When returning the project he/she did not include the original seal. He/she never corrected his/her previous mistakes even though he/she promised to do so. 7. The translator was not culturally sensitive. He/she presented himself/herself as a native speaker but did not know all the aspects of the culture. 8. The translator never returned money. He/she admitted that the translation was poorly done and promised to recompense but never did. 9. The translator did not respond well to constrictive criticism.

In order to stand out from the competition, and have your previous clients come back to you, one ought to perform self -evaluation after each translation project. Be critical about your skills and ask your clients for feedbacks. Even the negative ones might provide you with another perspectives and ideas on how to improve your skills and develop your professional growth. Sometimes constrictive criticism leads to a positive change. And positive feedbacks guarantee good promotion, trust among clients, and more projects. Good luck.

I have a great love for all things Italian. I work in a translation agency dealing with Italian English language combination projects, I am getting fat on Italian food and I am even marrying a fantastic Italian girl, who is also a translator.

So I hope to bring to you in this article not only an Italian English translation of the text. But also, a feel of the Italian culture and way of life.

Italian Names for the Seasons - la primavera, l'estate, l'autunno, l'inverno

The English Translations are:

Seasons

la primaveraa€"Spring

l'estatea€"Summer

l'autunnoa€"Autumn

l'invernoa€"Winter

In Italian the names of seasons (i stagioni) are not capitalized.

Now lets add some culture and lifestyle to this translation;

la primaveraa€"Spring

The scent of flowers arrives in your house. The days start to get longer. The fog in Bolgna will start to decrease and you will be less neccessary to have extra clothes when you walk (caminare) in the evening to get an icecream (gelato).

Already, the whole of Italy is getting ready for the summer. In the south they may already be getting on the beach some weekends.

Another funny side I have discovered is that some of the Italians I know (boys and girls) are already planning on getting rid of their girlfriends / boyfriends so that they won't be restricted from the pleasures of summer.

When I think of an English Spring I remember a saying my mother as always said 'March comes in like a lamb and goes out like a lion' Meaning it will start nice, but end with the roar of storms.

l'estatea€"Summer

In the summer the Italians are all heading for the beach. Italy is long and narrow looking like a ladies boot. As such, you are genereally no more then 45 minutes from the beach.

Most Italian have a selection of beaches they use. The beach of the family, the beach where they meet their friends and the beach where they go to see and be seen!

l'autunnoa€"Autumn

Autumn is generally a little depressing in most countries. The days are becoming shorter and the days on the beach are less and less inviting.

However, Italians love to party and the harvests create a cause for many regional celebrations. So I actually love this Italian season. Its cooler so you get to catch up on what you have put off through the heat of summer.

l'invernoa€"Winter

Well......again Italy is long and narrow and shaped like a boot as it has been formed by the merging of tetonic plates. This has resulted in a country that has mountains down its middle.

So the Italians, like many English, are generally off to the ski slopes. But unlike the English most Italians are only an hour from the slopes so they are able to go skiing most weekends.

I do hope you have enjoyed my article on the Italian seasons and the translation provided.

Prostrate in Bible Vs Quran (1) the translation of the original word

This article presents the translation of one simple Hebrew word.

The article shows that 95% of the Eminent Biblical Scholars are untruthful in their translation.

The Hebrew word of this article is ×"O'שO°××ªO·O¼×—O²×•O¥×•O¼

The Word root: שO¸××—O¸×"

The Word Strong's Number is 7812 (Strong's Hebrew Dictionary)

The Word meaning is: To prostrate or to bow down.

 

In the original Hebrew verse of 1 Chronicles 16:29 says:

×"O'שO°××ªO·O¼×—O²×•O¥×•O¼ לO·×™×"וO¸O–×" = ×"O'שO°××ªO·O¼×—O²×•O¥×•O¼ Yahweh = ×"O'שO°××ªO·O¼×—O²×•O¥×•O¼ Jehovah = Prostrate to Jehovah = Bow down to Jehovah.

O Eminent Biblical Scholars, are these two words too difficult to translate?

Study of 20 different English versions of the Bible reveals that only one version (5%) translates the two Hebrew words correctly.

On the other hand, 19 0ut of the 20 (95%) versions studied translate the two Hebrew words to Worship the LORD (Lord) in 16 versions and Worship Jehovah in two versions.

The strangest translation was "Enter his presence! Stand resplendent".

 

Summary of how 20 different English versions of the Bible translate "Prostrate to Jehovah"

- Bow yourselves to Jehovah (Young's Literal Translation)

- Worship the LORD (capitalized letters) in:

1. New International Version
2. New American Standard Bible
3. King James Version
4. English Standard Version
5. Contemporary English Version
6. New King James Version
7. 21st Century King James Version
8. Holman Christian Standard Bible
9. New International Version - UK
10. Today's New International Version
11. New International Version 1984

- Worship the Lord in:

1. Amplified Bible
2. New Living Translation
3. New Century Version
4. GOD'S WORD Translation
5. New International Reader's Version

- Worship Jehovah in:

1. American Standard Version
2. Darby Translation

- Enter his presence! Stand resplendent (The Message)

 

Hence, 95% of the English versions of the Bible are wrong and untruthful.

But, why the scholars who translate the Bible have done that?

Are they ignorant or have they willingly done that?

In the next article, you will realize the answer of the above question.

 

On the other hand, the Arabic word pronounced as "Sajada" that is the root of Prostrate is almost always translated to Prostrate in the four different English translations of the Quran.

By: Alireza Sadeghi Ghadi, MA Student of Translation, Fars Science and Research University, Iran

Supervisor:

Dr.Amir Marzban, PHD in TEFL, Faculty Member of Ghaemshar Azad University, Iran 

Abstract

Therefore, many studies have been focused on the nature, interlingual and

intertextual, empirical and theoretical notion of equivalence in recent years

(Catford 1965, 1994, Pym 1992, Koller 1979, Toury 1980, Hutchins and Somers

1992, Arnold 1994). The domain of equivalents covers linguistic units such as

morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, idioms and proverbs (Baker 1992).

Through using finding equivalence strategies, the translators also attempt to

improve the chance of persuading their readers by making better their qualities

of translation (Neubert 1985).

Introduction

When a translator attempts to translate a text from one language (source) to

another language (target), s/he should first of all understand and comprehend the

source text and then translates it to the target language. Therefore, the full

awareness of the source and target text for finding accurate and appropriate

equivalence in rendering of the contents of the text for reader.

Leonardi (2000) believes that equivalence is the central issue in translation

although its definition, relevance, and applicability within the field of translation

theory have caused heated controversy, and many different theories of the

concept of equivalence have been elaborated within this field in the past fifty

years.

The study of equivalence in translation shows how translators accurately

render text in translation from source language (SL) into target language or vice

versa. According to Halverson (1997), analogies between the equivalence

concept and a concept of scientific knowledge as it is and has been studied with

in the philosophy of science are highly informative in painting out the

philosophical issues involved in equivalence, translation, and knowledge. He

also believes that rather than dismissing the concept as ill - defined or

imprecise, it is in the interest of the field of translation studies to consider the

origins and manifestations of this 'imprecision' in order that we may be better

informed and less inclined towards theoretical antagonism.

Therefore the translators, by finding equivalence in translation can show the

tentative nature of their assertions, invite the readers, as intelligent individuals,

to join and decide which translation is accurately render the ideas, concepts and

words of original text.

Historical Background

According to Halverson (1997, p.207-210) equivalence is defined as a

relationship existing between two entities, and the relationship is described as

one of likeness/ sameness/ similarity/ equality in terms of any of a number of

potential qualities. Proponents of equivalence based theories of translation

usually define equivalence as the relationship between a source text (ST) and a

target text (TT) that allows the TL to be considered as a translation of the ST in

the first place. Equivalence relationships are also said to hold between parts of

ST and parts of TL the above definition of equivalence is not unproblematic.

Pym (1992, p.37), for one, has pointed to its circularity: equivalence is supposed

to define translation, and translation, in turn, defines equivalence. Unfortunately,

a few attempts have been made to define equivalence in translation in a way that

avoids this circularity (Dorothy, 1998).

Theorists who maintain that translation is predicated upon some kind of

equivalence have, for the most part, concentrated on developing typologies of

equivalence, focusing on the rank (word, sentence or text level) at which

equivalence is said to obtain or on the type of meaning (denotative, connotative,

pragmatic, etc.) that is said to be held constant in translation.

Snell - Hornby suggests that the applicability of an equivalence concept in

translation studies exist at the level of terminology and nomenclature, a€œthough

even here reservations are called fora€, In Wilss approach (1982) on the other

hand, translation equivalence was a€œan empirical phenomenon which carries with

it problems which presently can be solved, if at all, only for each individual

translation texta€.

Numerous scholars, including Eugene Nida (1964), Roman Jakobson

(1959), John C. Catford (1965), Juliane House (1977), peter Newmark (1988),

Vinay and Darblenet (1995) (addressed the subject of translation equivalence

(TE) using either the linguistic approach or the functional approach their

common approach was to set the rules of TE and then to use samples drawn

from texts to support the rules. In other words, the focus of their TE studies gave

priority over practice and to fixed norms over dynamic principles.

Newmark (1988) examined the translation equivalence concept from

perspective that swung a€œbetween literal and free, faithful and beautiful, exact

and natural translation, depending on whether the bias was to be in favor of the

author or the reader, the source or target language of the texta€. He clarified that

"communicative translation attempts to produce in its readers an effect as close

as possible to that produced in the readers of the original" and that a€œ semantic

translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic structure

of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the originala€.

G. Jager (1989, p.33), from the Leipzig school of translation, presents his

view about the importance of dealing scientifically with the concept of

translation equivalence, more specifically in relation to the possibility or the

need of using this concept for practical goals of the so called automatic

translation: against the background of modern conceptions of translation theory

which attempt to understand globally the linguistic exchange, there arises

inevitably the question about the general meaningfulness of research on the

discovery and description of equivalence relations. Undoubtly we would give an

affirmative answer to this question and here we bear in mind specially a

demanding test case for the science of translation: automatic translationa€.

J.House (1997) expresses his point of view about translation equivalence as

follows: a€œThe notion of equivalence is the conceptual basis of translation and, to

quote Catford, 'the central problem of translation practice is that of finding TL

(target language) equivalents. A central task of translation theory is therefore

that of defining the nature and conditions of translation equivalence' (1965 p.

21)a€ (p.25). After with the awareness of the concept of translation equivalence,

in the next section we study different taxonomies and typologies of equivalence

which are presented by renowned and famous theoreticians.

Typologies of Equivalence

Nida (1969) argued that there are two different types of equivalence, namely

formal equivalence which in the second edition by Nida and Taber (1982) is

referred to as formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence.

Formal correspondence 'focuses attention on the message itself, in both form

and content'. Nida and Taber make it clear that there is not always formal

equivalence between language pairs. They therefore suggest that this formal

equivalence should use wherever possible if the translation aims at achieving

formal rather than dynamic equivalence.

The uses of formal equivalence sometimes have serious implications in TT

since the translation will not be easily understood by the target audience.

(Fawcett, 1997). Nida and Taber themselves assert that 'Typically, formal

correspondence distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor

language, and hence distorts the message, so as to cause the receptor to

misunderstand or to labor unduly hard'.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle according to which

a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the

TL wording will trigger the same impact on the TL audience as the original

wording did upon the ST audience. They argue that 'Frequently, the form of the

original text is changed; but as long as the change follows the rules of back

transformation in the source language, of contextual consistency in the transfer,

and of transformation in the receptor language, the message is preserved and the

translation is faithful' (Nida and Taber, 1982, P.200). Only in Nida and Taber's

edition is it clearly stated that 'dynamic equivalence in translation is far more

than mere correct communication of information'.

Carford (1965) defines translation equivalence clearly different from that

adopted by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more linguistic based

approach to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth

and Halliday. His main contribution in the field of translation theory is the

introduction of the concept of types and shifts of translation.

Catford proposed very broad types of translation in terms of three criteria:

1. The extent of translation (full translation us partial translation).

2. The grammatical rank at which translation equivalence is established

(rank bound translation vs. unbound translation).

3. The level of language involved in translation (total translation vs.

restricted translation).

We will refer to only the second type of translation, since this is the one that

concerns the concept of equivalence. In rank bound translation an equivalent is

sought in the TL for each word, or for each morpheme encountered in the ST. In

unbound translation equivalences are not tied to a particular rank, and we may

additionally find equivalences at sentence, clause and other levels. House (1977)

is in favor of semantic and pragmatic equivalence and argues that ST and TT

should match one another in function. House suggests that it is possible to

characterize the function of a text by determining the situational dimensions of

the ST.

In fact according to her theory, every text itself is placed within a particular

situation which has to be correctly identified and taken in to account by the

translator. After the ST analysis, House believes that if the ST and the TT differ

substantially on situational features, then they are not functionally equivalent,

and the translation is not of a high quality in fact, she acknowledges that 'a

translation text should not only match its source text in function, but employ

equivalent situational - dimensional means to achieve that function'. House's

theory of equivalence in translation seems to be much more flexible than

Catford's. In fact she gives authentic example, uses complete texts and more

importantly, she relates linguistic features to the context of both source and

target text (Leonardi 2000).

Roman Jakobson (1959) in his study of equivalence gave new impetus to the

theoretical analysis of translation since he introduced the notion of 'equivalence

in difference'. On the basis of his semiotic approach to language and his

aphorism 'there is no signatum without signum' he suggest three kinds of

translation.

1- Intralingual (within one language, i.e. rewording of paraphrase)

2. Interlingual (between two languages)

3- Intersemiotic (between sign systems)

Jakobson claims that, in the case of interlingual translation, the translator

makes use of synonyms in order to get the ST message across. This means that

in interlingual translations there is no full equivalence between code units.

According to his theory, 'translation involves two equivalent messages in two

different codes'. Jakobson goes on to say that from a grammatical point of view

languages may differ from one another to a greater or lesser degrees, but this

does not mean that translation can not be possible, in other words, the translator

may face the problem of not finding a translation equivalent. He acknowledges

that 'whenever there is deficiency, terminology may be qualified and amplified

by loanwords or loan translations, neologisms or semantic shifts and finally by

circumlocutions'. An extremely interesting discussion of the notion of

equivalence can be found in Baker (1992) who seems to offer a more detailed

list of conditions upon which the concept of equivalence can be defined. She

explores the notion of equivalence at different levels, in relation to translation

process, including all different aspects of translation and hence putting together

the linguistic and communicative approach. She distinguishes between:

Equivalence that can appear at word level which is used in this

study and above word level, when translating from one language

into another.

 After dealing with the difficulties implied in the lack of
2-Gramatical equivalence, when referring to diversity of grammatical

categories across languages.

She notes that grammatical rules may vary across
3- Textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a SL text

and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion.

 In terms of textual equivalence, she proposes following classification of

strategies to solve textual equivalence.
4- Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to implicatures and strategies of

avoidance during translation process.

She believes that the role of the translator is to recreate the author's intention in

another culture in such a way that enables the TT reader to understand it clearly.

Another famous and renowned model of equivalence presented by Koller

(1989). At various levels, and loosely following Koller (1979, p.187-91; 1989,

p.100-104), equivalence is commonly established as follows:

1. Referential or denotative equivalence, when the source language (SL) and

target language (TL) words supposedly referring to the same thing in the

real world.

2. Pragmatic equivalence, when the SL and TL words having the same

effect on their respective readers.

3. Formal equivalence, when the SL and TL words having similar

orthographic or phonological features.

4. Connotative equivalence, when the SL and TL words triggering the same

or similar associations in the minds of native speakers of the two languages

5. Text normative equivalence, when the SL and TL words are being used

in the same or similar contexts in their respective languages.

Other scholar, Newman (1994) stress that not all the variables in translation

are relevant in every situation and those translators must decide which

considerations should be given priority at any one time, thus establishing a kind

of functional equivalence.

Popovic (1976) in his definition of translation equivalence (TE) distinguishes

four types of equivalence as presented follow:

1- Linguistic equivalence, where there is homogeneity on the linguistic level

of both SL and TL texts, i.e. word for word translation.

2- Paradigmatic equivalence, where there is equivalence of 'the elements of

paradigmatic expressive axis, i.e. elements of grammar, which Popovic sees

as being a higher category than lexical equivalence.

3- Stylistic (translational) equivalence, where there is functional

equivalence of elements in both original and translation aiming at an

expressive identity with an invariant of identical meaning.

4- Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence, where there is equivalence of

syntagmatic structuring of a text, i.e. equivalence of form and shape.

Interlingual and Intertextual Equivalence

In earlier work on equivalence, theorists made a distinction between

hypothetical mapping between elements of abstract language systems (at level of

langue) on the one hand, and actual observable mappings between elements of

real ST and TT (at the level of parole) on the other. Catford (1965, p.27) used

the term formal correspondence and textual equivalence respectively to refer to

the two categories. Koller (1979, p.183-184) made a similar distinction when he

differentiated between korrespondez, formal similarity between language

systems, and Aquivalenz, equivalence relations between real texts and

utterances.

Koller then went on to present Aquivalenz as the real object of enquiry in

translation studies. Similarly, Toury (1980, p.24-6) charts the evolution of the

notion of translatability from interlingual phenomenon to an intertextual one.

While relationships established at the level of langue are now largely seen as the

concern of comparative linguistics, formal correspondence continues to have

pride of place in machine translation, where linguistic - knowledge - based

systems using direct or transfer architecture often rely on mapping between the

formal structures of two language.

Indeed Catford's translation shifts bear real similarities to notions of complex

transfer in machine translation (Hutchins and Somers 1992; Arnold et al. 1994).

Thus Koller (1979) and Pym (1995, p.157-8) believed that the general view

in translation studies soon came to be that equivalence was a relation between

texts in two different languages, rather than between the languages themselves.

They also mention that this step liberated translation studies from debates on

interlingual translatability based on entire language systems with their entire all

their unactualized meaning potential. Such debates had centered on in

compatibilities between the worlds inhabited by speakers of different languages

and on the structural dissimilarities between languages (Dorothy, 1998).

Dorothy also believes that once attention was focused on texts and utterances,

many of the potential multiple meanings and functions of words and structures

in a language system could be eliminated by reference to their context and co

text, making translation not only more tractable, but also more realistic. In the

next section we investigate equivalence from empirical and theoretical concept

that plays important role in this article.

Equivalence as an Empirical and a Theoretical Concept

The narrowing down of the scope of the term equivalence to an intertextual

relation still left plenty of room for competing notions of the concept. Toury

(1980 p. 39) identified two main used of the term: first, equivalence could be 'a

descriptive term, denoting concrete objects - actual relationships between actual

utterances in two languages (and literatures), recognized as TT and ST - which

are subject to direct observation'. This definition regards equivalence as an

empirical category which could be established only after the event of translation.

Toury contrasted this approach with equivalence as 'a theoretical term, denoting

an abstract, ideal relationship, or category of relationships between TT and ST,

translations and their sources'. This dichotomy can be problematic, however.

For one, it may not be psychologically plausible. From the translator's point of

view, it is not clear whether a real distinction can be made between what one

intends to write, and what one actually writes.

Furthermore, equivalence as a theoretical term, a prospective and often

descriptive notion, is responsible for acquiring a bad name for equivalence in

some quarters in translation studies (Dorothy 1998). Gentzler (1993 p.4), for

example, contends that standards of translation analysis that rely on equivalence

or non - equivalence and other associated judgmental criteria 'imply notions of

substantialism that limit other possibilities of translation practice, marginalize

unorthodox translation, and impinge upon real intercultural exchange'. Newman

(1994, p. 4694), on the other hand, describes translation equivalence as 'a

commonsense term for describing the ideal relationship that a reader would

expect to exist between an original and its translation'. Newman's equivalence is

clearly prospective and ideal, although empirical approaches also feature in the

analysis. Pym also speaks about equivalence as a fact of reception and about the

socially determined 'expectation' that TT should stand in some kind of

equivalence relation to their ST.

Hutchins and Somers (1992, p.317-22) believe that while Catford view of

textual equivalence may say very little about the nature of equivalence, the

approach has found application in areas such as example and statistics based

machine translation and, more recently, in translation memory system, where

previously translated ST and their TT are stored with a view to recycling old

translations, should the system recognize new input for which it already has an

equivalent target rendering.

Equivalence as an empirical phenomenon has seen perhaps its most powerful

manifestation to date Toury's (1980, 1995) work. Where as other theorists might

ask whether two text are equivalence according to some predefined, prescriptive

criterion of equivalence, Toury treats the existence of equivalence between TT

and ST a given. This equivalence postulate them allows him to state that 'the

question to be asked in the actual study of translations (especially in the

comparative analysis of TT and ST) is not whether the two texts are equivalence

(from a certain aspect), but what type and degree of translation equivalence they

reveal'. Toury's approach and subsequently koller's (1995, p.196), makes

appeal to historical, relative notion of equivalence.

Non - Equivalence at Word Level

Non - equivalence at word level means that the target language has no direct

equivalence for a word that occurs in the source text. There are many factors to

cause the problems of non - equivalence. Baker (1992) categories some of the

problems of non equivalence at word level which is presented in the following:

1. Culture - specific concepts

2. The source language concept is not lexicalized in the target language

3. The source language word is semantically complex

4. The source and target language make different distinctions in meaning

5. The target language lacks a superordinate term

6. The target language lacks a specific term (hyponym)

7. Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective

8. Differences in expressive meaning

9. Differences in from

10. Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms

11. The use of loan words in the source text

12. Differences in propositional meaning

Due to importance of this section, researcher will explain some of the problems

which are presented in table by Baker. According to her cultural - specific

concepts are those SL words may express a concept that is totally unknown in

the target culture. They may have something to do with a religious belief, social

custom, or even a type of food. For example, in Persian we have Ashura, Jihad

as a religious word which is unknown in most of the other languages. The

second category is SL concept is not lexicalized in the target language which

means that the SL word may express a concept that is known in the target

culture but simply not lexicalized. Landslide has no exact equivalence in many

languages, although it only means over whelming majority. Another Baker's

category is that the SL word is semantically complicated which means that a

single word can some times express a complex meaning than a whole sentence.

The other is that the TL lacks a super ordinate or a hyponym which means

that the TL may have specific word (hyponym) but no general words (super

ordinate), and vice versa. For example under a€œhousea€, English has a variety of

hyponyms which have no equivalence in many languages such as Persian, for

example in English we have: a€œbungalowa€, cottage, croft, chalet, hut, manor,

lodge and so on.

Differences in expressive meaning is another problem of non - equivalence

at word level mentioned by Baker which mean that there may exist a TL word

which has the same propositional meaning as the SL word, but may have a

different expressive meaning. Words like homosexuality provide good examples

Homosexuality is not inherently pejorative word in English, although it is often

used in this way. On the other hand, the equivalence expression in some other

languages is inherently more pejorative and would be quite difficult to use in

neutral context without suggesting strong disapproval.

Equivalence in English and Persian

Karimi (2006) believes that translator should not always find one - to - one

categorically or structurally or structurally equivalent units in two languages,

that is, sometimes two different languages carry the same function. For example,

the verb happened in English sentence he happens to be happy equals the adverb

etefaghan (by chance) in the Persian sentence: u etefaghan khoshhal ast.

Safarzadeh (1995) stated that the translator for finding equivalence should

finding out the meaning of an SL linguistic form, should ask himself / herself

what the linguistic form is in another language TL for the same meaning to be

encoded. Ziahosseini (1994) believes that to render a satisfactory translation, the

translator needs to be acquainted with phonological, pragmatic, religious and

cultural systems of both SL and TL to find standard equivalence to the TL

audience.

Some examples of equivalents in Persian and English

1. Coal in English may equal zire in Persian and Newcastle in English may

equal Kerman (a city in Iran), hence taking coal to Newcastle = zire be Kerman

bordan (Karimi 2006)

2. Sometimes a multiple meaning term in English may have several equal terms

in Persian and vice versa. (Karimi 2006).

For example depression in English equals kesadi (in Engish may have several

equal terms in Persian and vice versa.

For example depression in English equals kesadi (in economy), afsordegi (in

psychology) and frooraftegi (in dissection). Or the term Tabaghah in Persian

equals: 1 class 2. Layer 3-floor 4- category in English.

3. The word khordan (to eat) in Persian collocates with many other words, in the

examples: sarma (cold) khordan, chaie (tea) khordan, zamin (ground) khordan,

ghaze (food) khordan. Its equivalents in English are: To eat (for food), 2) To

drink (for tea) 3) To fall (for ground) 4) To catch (for cold) respectively

(Ziahosseini 1994).

4. The Persian word Raies collocates with:

1- edarah (office) 2- deneshgah (university) 3- dadgah (court) while in English

parenthetical words are collocated by 1) boss 2) chancellor 3) magistrate(Karimi

2006).

5. A three part compound word in English may be translated into a single word

in Persian: daughter in law = aroos (zia hoseini 1994)

6. A simple Persian word maybe translated into a compound form in English and

vice versa: hound (sag shekari), asa (walking stick), divan (complete works) and

so on (Hozhabr Nejad, 1994, p.305).

7. The perfect future tense in English may be translated into present perfect or

simple future tense in Persian (Modiri, 1942). I shall have written =

Neveshteham/ Khaham nevesht.

Conclusion

In other words, a translator should achieve a similar effect on the target text

receiver as the source text has on the source text receiver. However, between

languages with greater cultural differences, it may not be easy to achieve this.

Investigating equivalence in ST and TT is a good way to appraise the

meaning of original and translated version. Then by comparing them one can

notice how much of the meaning is transferred in the process of translation and

how much is lost; and the quality of translation in the realm of meaning as far as

of equivalence is concerned is being revealed.

According to above examples, we can conclude that due to religious, cultural

and literary factors, it is difficult to find a standard equivalent in one language

for another. Nevertheless, awareness of different theories which are presented by

famous theoretician can help us to find appropriates equivalence in translation of

different texts such as: scientific, literary and so on.

1. Adding

2. Deleting

3. Producing different lexical chains

4. Reordering

5. Explicitation

6. Rechunking (re organizing or renumbering paragraphs, sentences)

repunctuating

languages and this may pose some problems in terms of finding a direct

correspondence in TL. In fact, she claims that different grammatical structures

in the SL and TL may cause remarkable changes in the way the information or

message is carried across. These changes may induce the translator either to add

or to omit information in the TT because of the lack of particular grammatical

devices in the TL itself.

Amongst these grammatical devices which might cause problems in translation

Baker focuses on number, tense and aspects, voice, person and gender.

equivalence at word level, Baker (1992, p.26-42) proposes the

following classification of strategies to solve non-equivalence at word

level.

1. Translation by more general word (superordinate)

2. Translation by more neutral/ less expressive word

3. Translation by cultural substitution

4. Translation using a loan word

5. Translation by paraphrase using a related word

6. Translation by paraphrase using unrelated word

7. Translation by omission

8. Translation by illustration

9. Translation by loan word plus explanation

Baker's word level is the first element to be taken into consideration by the

translator. In fact, when the translator starts analyzing the ST, s/he looks at

the words as single units in order to find a direct 'equivalent' term in the TL.

Bake gives a definition of the term "word" since it should be remembered

that a single word can sometimes be assigned different meanings in different

languages and be regarded as being a more complex unit or Morpheme. This

means that the translator should pay attention to a number of factors when

considering a single word, such a number, gender and tense. She also

proposes the following classification of strategies to solve non-equivalence

above word level such as: collocations, idioms and fixed expressions.

1. Resourcing

2. Using an idiom of similar meaning and form

3. Using an idiom of similar meaning but differing form

4. Paraphrase

5. Omission

6. Compensation

7. Rewording

8. Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words

9. Translation by illustration

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References The routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. London &New York: Routledge.

Baker, M. (ed.)(1997).

Wills, W. (1982)
. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods.
Tubingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.

Anthony, Pym. (2007). Natural and Directional Equivalence in Theories of

Translation.

Toury, Gideon. (1995).

and Philadelphia: Benjamins.

Toury, Gideon. (1980).

institute for poetics and simiotics.

Kenny, Dorothy.(1998).

of translation studies

Routledge,pp.77-80.

Modiri , A.H.(1964).

Kabir Publishing Institution.
Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond. AmesterdamIn Search of Theory of Translation. Tel aviv: the porter' Equivalence', in the routledge encyclopaedia, edited by Mona Baker,London and new york :A complete English Grammer. Tehran: Amir-
 

 

Karimi, L. (2006) Equivalence in Translation.V10, N 1.

 

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About the Author

MA STUDENT OF TRANSLATION, FARS SCIENCE AND RESEARCH UNIVERSITY,SHIRAZ ,IRAN

Machine translation (MT) techniques are now ubiquitous. This ubiquity is due to a blend of elevated require for translation in today's worldwide marketplace, and an exponential development in computing electrical power that has created this kind of methods viable. And below the right circumstances, MT techniques are a strong instrument. They offer lower-top quality translations in conditions exactly where minimal-high quality translation is far better than no translation at all, or in which a tough translation of a big document delivered in seconds or minutes is much more valuable than a very good translation delivered in 3 weeks' time.

Regrettably, regardless of the widespread accessibility of MT, it is clear that the goal and limitations of this kind of methods are often misunderstood, and their ability widely overestimated. In this article, I want to give a brief overview of how MT systems function and therefore how they can be set to very best use. Then, I'll current some information on how Online-based MT is being utilised proper now, and present that there is a chasm among the meant and precise use of these methods, and that customers even now require educating on how to use MT methods properly.

How machine translation works

You may possibly have anticipated that a pc translation plan would use grammatical guidelines of the languages in question, combining them with some variety of in-memory "dictionary" to produce the resulting translation. And in fact, that's fundamentally how some earlier methods labored. But most modern MT programs really take a statistical technique that is quite "linguistically blind". Primarily, the method is educated on a corpus of instance translations. The consequence is a statistical model that incorporates info this kind of as:

- "when the words (a, b, c) take place in succession in a sentence, there is an X% likelihood that the words (d, e, f) will occur in succession in the translation" (N.B. there don't have to be the similar amount of words in every single pair);

- "provided two successive words (a, b) in the goal language, if phrase (a) ends in -X, there is an X% chance that phrase (b) will finish in -Y".

Provided a enormous entire body of this kind of observations, the program can then translate a sentence by thinking about different candidate translations-- built by stringing words together nearly at random (in actuality, through some 'naive selection' approach)-- and picking the statistically most probable choice.

On hearing this substantial-degree description of how MT operates, most people today are stunned that this kind of a "linguistically blind" technique operates at all. What's even a lot more shocking is that it usually functions greater than rule-based mostly systems. This is partly since relying on grammatical analysis itself introduces mistakes into the equation (automated analysis is not entirely exact, and humans don't constantly concur on how to analyse a sentence). And education a method on "bare text" allows you to base a technique on far additional data than would in any other case be feasible: corpora of grammatically analysed texts are modest and number of and far amongst; pages of "bare text" are readily available in their trillions.

Nevertheless, what this strategy does suggest is that the quality of translations is very dependent on how effectively components of the source text are represented in the information originally applied to train the technique. If you unintentionally variety he will returned or vous avez demander (as an alternative of he will return or vous avez demandA©), the method will be hampered by the simple fact that sequences such as will returned are unlikely to have occurred several occasions in the teaching corpus (or worse, could have occurred with a fully distinct meaning, as in they necessary his will returned to the solicitor). And because the program has tiny notion of grammar (to perform out, for illustration, that returned is a kind of return, and "the infinitive is probably soon after he will"), it in effect has tiny to go on.

Similarly, you could ask the method to translate a sentence that is correctly grammatical and common in daily use, but which contains capabilities that occur not to have been frequent in the instruction corpus. MT techniques are ordinarily skilled on the varieties of text for which human translations are easily readily available, these as technical or company documents, or transcripts of meetings of multilingual parliaments and conferences. This provides MT methods a pure bias in direction of sure kinds of formal or technical text. And even if daily vocabulary is nonetheless coated by the instruction corpus, the grammar of everyday speech (this kind of as using tAº instead of usted in Spanish, or making use of the current tense rather of the future tense in several languages) may well not.

MT programs in practice

Researches and builders of laptop or computer translation techniques have usually been informed that a single of the main potential risks is public misperception of their purpose and restrictions. Somers (2003)[1], observing the use of MT on the net and in chat rooms, feedback that: "This increased visibility of MT has had a number of facet effets. [...] There is definitely a need to educate the standard public about the reduced top quality of raw MT, and, importantly, why the quality is so low." Observing MT in use in 2009, there's sadly tiny proof that users' awareness of these difficulties has enhanced.

As an illustration, I'll present a tiny sample of info from a Spanish-English MT service that I make offered at the net website. The service works by taking the user's input, applying some "cleanup" processes (such as correcting some frequent orthographical mistakes and decoding typical circumstances of "SMS-speak"), and then looking for translations in (a) a financial institution of examples from the site's Spanish-English dictionary, and (b) a MT engine. At the moment, Google Translate is employed for the MT engine, though a customized engine might be employed in the long term. The figures I existing right here are from an evaluation of 549 Spanish-English queries introduced to the technique from machines in Mexico[2]-- in other words, we presume that most customers are translating from their native language.

Very first, what are folks utilizing the MT program for? For every query, I attempted a "very best guess" at the user's purpose for translating the query. In quite a few cases, the goal is rather clear; in a couple of instances, there is clearly ambiguity. With that caveat, I judge that in about 88% of instances, the intended use is rather clear-lower, and categorise these utilizes as follows:

• Seeking up a single word or phrase: 38%
• Translating a formal text: 23%
• World wide web chat session: 18%
• Homework: 9%

A surprising (if not alarming!) observation is that in such a significant proportion of situations, users are utilizing the translator to look up a single phrase or phrase. In simple fact, 30% of queries consisted of a single phrase. The discovering is a minor surprising given that the site in query also has a Spanish-English dictionary, and suggests that users confuse the objective of dictionaries and translators. Even though not represented in the raw figures, there had been clearly some circumstances of consecutive searches the place it appeared that a person was intentionally splitting up a sentence or phrase that would have in all probability been far better translated if left with each other. Perhaps as a consequence of student around-drilling on dictionary utilization, we see, for illustration, a query for cuarto para ("quarter to") followed instantly by a query for a range. There is clearly a will need to educate students and customers in standard on the distinction in between the digital dictionary and the machine translator[3]: in particular, that a dictionary will guide the user to picking the acceptable translation offered the context, but calls for single-phrase or single-phrase lookups, whereas a translator normally performs best on whole sentences and offered a single word or time period, will just report the statistically most typical translation.

I estimate that in much less than a quarter of scenarios, users are working with the MT system for its "educated-for" objective of translating or gisting a formal text (and are coming into an entire sentence, or at least partial sentence fairly than an isolated noun phrase). Of program, it's not possible to know regardless of whether any of these translations had been then intended for publication without having further proof, which undoubtedly isn't the function of the method.

The use for translating formal texts is now pretty much rivalled by the use to translate informal on-line chat periods-- a context for which MT methods are typically not educated. The on-line chat context poses specific issues for MT methods, given that characteristics these as non-regular spelling, lack of punctuation and presence of colloquialisms not discovered in other written contexts are widespread. For chat periods to be translated effectively would almost certainly call for a devoted program educated on a far more ideal (and perhaps custom-constructed) corpus.

It's not too surprising that students are working with MT systems to do their homework. But it's fascinating to be aware to what extent and how. In fact, use for homework incudes a mixture of "fair use" (understanding an physical exercise) with an attempt to "get the personal computer to do their homework" (with predictably dire results in some situations). Queries categorised as homework contain sentences which are clearly instructions to workouts, plus particular sentences explaining trivial generalities that would be uncommon in a text or conversation, but which are common in beginners' homework workouts.

Whatever the use, an problem for process customers and designers alike is the frequency of mistakes in the supply text which are liable to hamper the translation. In actuality, about forty% of queries contained this kind of problems, with some queries containing numerous. The most typical errors were the following (queries for single words and terms have been excluded in calculating these figures):

• Missing accents: 14% of queries
• Lacking punctuation: thirteen%
• Other orthographical error: eight%
• Grammatically incomplete sentence: eight%

Bearing in thoughts that in the majority of situations, customers the place translating from their native language, users show up to underestimate the value of employing normal orthography to give the very best possibility of a great translation. Additional subtly, customers do not often realize that the translation of 1 phrase can depend on another, and that the translator's task is far more tough if grammatical constituents are incomplete, so that queries such as hoy es dA­a de are not uncommon. This kind of queries hamper translation due to the fact the opportunity of a sentence in the teaching corpus with, say, a "dangling" preposition like this will be slim.

Lessons to be learnt...?

At current, there's even now a mismatch involving the efficiency of MT methods and the expectations of customers. I see duty for closing this gap as lying in the fingers each of builders and of customers and educators. Customers require to consider a lot more about doing their source sentences "MT-friendly" and find out how to assess the output of MT methods. Language courses require to tackle these difficulties: understanding to use pc translation equipment properly needs to be noticed as a applicable part of learning to use a language. And developers, such as myself, want to think about how we can make the tools we provide far better suited to language users' requirements.

Notes

[one] Somers (2003), "Machine Translation: the Newest Developments" in The Oxford Handbook of Computational Linguistics, OUP.

[two] This odd variety is merely simply because queries matching the variety standards have been captured with random probability inside of a fixed time body. It need to be famous that the method for deducing a machine's nation from its IP address is not entirely correct.

[three] If the person enters a single phrase into the technique in question, a message is displayed beneath the translation suggesting that the person would get a much better consequence by making use of the site's dictionary.
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You may really want to understand the Japanese language. However, some of you may be stuck with Japanese sentence translation. That is okay. I have devised a few "Japanese Sentence Translation" tips to help you get through your difficult time.

Japanese Sentence Translation Tip 1:
Pick up a Japanese Dictionary. This will definitely help you translate the Japanese sentence. You can grab one at Amazon.com for around (USD). This is a pretty good investment toward easing your pain over understanding that Japanese sentence.

Japanese Sentence Translation Tip 2:
Get help from someone that speaks Japanese. This is even smarter than the first tip I gave you. If you know someone that can read and understand Japanese, you can simply show them the sentence you are struggling with. After, they will give you the answer and solve your problem right away. Not only that, you will get to keep your that you would have spent on the dictionary. Like I said, this tip is smart!

Japanese Sentence Translation Tip 3:
Watch Japanese movies with English subtitles. This method will help you understand the Japanese language. You will probably run into your sentence through out the movie. Even though it may not be the best plan to help you understand a single sentence, you will probably over benefit by learning the majority of the Japanese language this way.

Japanese Sentence Translation Tip 4:
Use the language translation tool on Google. It can be found on the Google's main page under the hyperlink, "Language Tools" beside the search box. This can help you translate the Japanese sentence you are having trouble with instantly. Just cut and paste the sentence into the "Translate Text" box; pick the language of the sentence you want to translate in the first drop down box--i.e., Japanese; pick the language that you want the sentence to translate to--i.e., English or whatever other language preference you have; and, press the button "Translate". Voila! You can now understand what the Japanese sentence means.

Japanese Sentence Translation Tip 5:
Get the right tools that can properly teach you how to learn the Japanese language. This is the best Japanese sentence translation tip that I can give you. Somehow get your hands on software, books, audio courses, into a class, or go to Japan and actually learn the language. Not only will it help you now with you current translation problem, but you will have this language skill for the rest of your life!

These were a few tips that can help you with your Japanese sentence translation problems. Personally, I would focus on learning the entire language than just one sentence. There are more benefits to this: you will get bilingual jobs, you can easily travel to Japan and not suffer from the language barrier and you will feel intelligent for learning something that can be deemed difficult. Nonetheless, if the sentence is all that you are after, I hope these tips help.

It is important to understand others for the purposes of communication.  But what happens when the other person speaks a different language?  Furthermore, what happens if the person speaks in the language Japanese?  If you do not know this language, then you will be confronted with a certain level of communication trouble.  Therefore, Japanese language translation would be something that you would want to understand to beat the language barrier.

How does one go about learning the Japanese language?  There are many techniques to learning the language.  I will now list several ways to learn Japanese.

1. Read books that teach you how to speak Japanese.  You can find these books at amazon, ebay, google, in local bookstores, and in libraries.  Once you find a book on the Japanese language, learn to read it everyday until you are able to speak Japanese like a natural.  Try practicing for 1 hour a day.

2. Learn the language from your favorite Japanese movies.  Why not make learning the Japanese language fun?  Pop a DVD of your favorite Japanese movie into your DVD player and turn on the English subtitles.  The subtitles will act as an aid that will guide you with Japanese pronunciations.  This way will easily teach you how to speak Japanese.

3. Ask a friend that speaks Japanese to help you understand the language.  If you do not have a friend that speaks Japanese, go out and make friends with someone that does.  This will be a nice cost effective way to learn the language.  Make sure you reward your friend for the time they put into teaching you the language.

4. Learn the language off the internet.  There are many sites on the internet that will teach you how to speak, read, and write the Japanese language.  Just do a Google search for those certain sites that have Japanese language learning content.  You will be surprised at all the site options you will have to learn with.

5. Use the aid of Japanese dictionaries.  This is the exact way to breakdown individual Japanese words.  This way you can learn in baby steps.  You will also be able to learn certain phrases with this learning method.  Pick up a dictionary online or at the bookstore.

6. Go to school and learn Japanese from a teacher.  Find a school in your general area that will educate you with the Japanese language.  You can find them in your Yellow pages, online, or through some community classified section.  This way will be the perfect structured way to learn because of the guidance from a professional educator.

7. Use Japanese learning software.  Find a company that provides this type of program online.  Type "Learn Japanese Software" in a search engine query bar.  You will see all the choices of learning programs there are available.  Read reviews on the product before you make any purchases.

This was only a few ways to experience Japanese language translation.  There are tons of other methods that can help you learn the language.  Just use your imagination.  Next thing you know, you are speaking, writing and reading Japanese with great ease.  Hope your lessons work out for you!

I've observed a great deal of folks, which include popular ones like David Beckham, wear Chinese calligraphy on their bodies. It seems that if you have a Chinese tattoo symbol on your arm, shoulder blade, wrist, or wherever else you'd want a tattoo, you're deemed well-known. Properly, I can't blame them, especially Westerners.

There's a certain mystery enveloping the beautifully advanced Chinese characters. The fact that a good deal of people today don't know or aren't familiar with the which means of these characters attracts extra awareness to the individual wearing the tattoo. One can't enable but wonder what individuals characters suggest, and what relevance these meanings have for the individual who wears them.

The high symbols that are utilized for tattoos are the symbols of the Chinese zodiac and the symbols for adore, power, faith, friendship, household, happiness, peace, hope, and lastly, luck. These selections reflect what people wish for on their own, for their lives, or what they think very best displays their personalities, narrates their experiences, or asserts their identities. These are 1 of the perks of getting a Chinese tattoo symbol and it can make you surprise why the Chinese or most Asians themselves don't have them.

Nicely, try imagining that you're a native English speaker and you have the word "love" tattooed on your arm. Some fancy getting a dragon tattoo and having the Chinese character for dragon tattooed alongside it. It's like having a image of a dragon labeled "dragon". Chinese and Asians generally favor to have tattoo symbols of animals or flowers.

A Chinese tattoo image employed as a tattoo can both be Chinese calligraphy or Chinese writing. This is an essential consideration because there is a big difference involving the two. Chinese calligraphy is not just phrases or writing; it depicts emotion, mood and imagined, and can be as significantly a image as words, so that it would be very best, aesthetically talking, to choose Chinese calligraphy around Chinese writing. 1 website gave seven sorts of Chinese calligraphy, two of which are employed as tattoo designs -the Kaishu model (or the formal or regular type) and the Lishu fashion (or the official clerical model).

1 ought to be cautious in utilizing Chinese characters as tattoos. Since not all Chinese words, tips, proverbs or philosophies can be immediately translated into English and vice versa, there have been a great deal of hilarious and embarrassing mistakes soon after having a Chinese tattoo symbol completed. Normally, the errors come from utilizing translator engines located on the World wide web that inaccurately translate English phrases or ideas into Chinese. An instance of this is the word "freedom" becoming translated into "cheap". Getting assist from a native speaker is recommended about having translations carried out by means of the World wide web.

Getting a Chinese tattoo symbol has gained vast reputation principally among Westerners who might locate these characters, with their complexity and deeper meanings, unique and attractive. It helps them express themselves, their identities and experiences. For those who are interested in finding tattoos with Chinese symbols, make sure to seek advice from a native Chinese speaker to stay away from mistakes and embarrassment in indelible art.

Click on the hyperlinks beneath to get your no cost Tattoo guidelines and manual.
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